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protect trade

Толкование Перевод

1 protect

1. I
abs

a floor wax protects as well as shines мастика предохраняет [пол] и одновременно придает [ему] блеск
2. III
protect smth., smb.

1) protect one's country (one's city, one's children, its young, its subjects, etc.) защищать свою родину и т.д.; protect smb.'s /one's own/ interests (public health, their innocence, her, etc.) защищать /охранять/ чьи-л. /свои/ интересы и т.д.

2) protect trade (industries, arts, intellectual pursuits, the producer, the manufacturer, etc.) поддерживать торговлю и т.д., покровительствовать торговле и т.д.
3. IV
protect smth., smb. in some manner

1) protect smth., smb. well (badly, effectively, bravely, courageously, etc.) хорошо и т.д. защищать /оборонять/ что-л., кого-л.

2) protect smth., smb. legally (nominally, scientifically, automatically, permanently, financially, etc.) законно и т.д. поддерживать что-л., кого-л., поддерживать что-л., кого-л. на законных основаниях и т.д.
4. XI
be protected by smth., smb. be protected by the government (by law, etc.) находиться под охраной правительства и т.д.; the book is protected by copyright на книгу распространяется авторское право; this machine is protected by patents на эту машину имеется патент, эта машина запатентована; his interests were protected by his guardian о соблюдении его интересов заботился опекун; he was protected by a bodyguard его сопровождал телохранитель; these electric wires are protected by rubber covering резиновая изоляция защищает эти электрические провода; be protected against /from/ smth. in some manner those who take these pills are effectively protected against /from/ the attacks of bacteria людям, принимающим эти пилюли, гарантируется надежная защита от действия бактерий
5. XXI1
protect smth., smb. from / against/ smb., smth. protect one's country against invaders (one's child from danger, them from enemies, us from an epidemic, her against rain, etc.) защищать свою родину от захватчиков и т.д.; protect one's head from the sun (one's eyes from the glare, the house from the weather, etc.) защищать голову от солнца и т.д.; protect her from insults ограждать ее от оскорблений; protect smb. from smb.'s wrath (him against fraudulent imitation, people against a disease, etc.) ограждать кого-л. от чьего-л. гнева и т.п.

English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > protect
2 trade barrier
1. торговый барьер
торговый барьер
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

EN

trade barrier
An artificial restraint on the free exchange of goods and services between nations. The most common types of trade barriers are tariffs, quotas, and exchange control. Such obstacles to trade are usually imposed by a country that wishes to protect domestic products in their home market against foreign competition, better its terms of trade, reduce domestic unemployment, or improve its balance-of-payments position. The raising of trade barriers by one country often provokes other nations position. Generally, the effect of a trade barrier is to reduce the volume of trade while increasing the domestic price of the protected good. Thus, it results in a relatively inefficient allocation of world resources and reduces the level of total world income and production. (Source: GREENW)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

Тематики
- охрана окружающей среды
EN
- trade barrier
DE
- Handelsbarriere
FR
- barričre commerciale
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > trade barrier
3 trade marks act
1. закон о товарных знаках
закон о товарных знаках
Данный закон предусматривает регистрацию товарных знаков различных видов товаров и услуг, а также запрещает использование зарегистрированного товарного знака лицами, не являющимися собственниками или уполномоченными лицензиатами товарных знаков. Оргкомитетам Игр следует осуществлять регистрацию логотипов или эмблем для предотвращения нанесения их изображений на товары или использования в иных целях без разрешения ОКОИ. Данный закон наряду с другими законодательными актами об охране авторского права обеспечивает защиту товарных знаков ОКОИ во всем мире.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

EN

trade marks act
This act allows the registration of trademarks in various classes of goods or services and prohibits the use of a registered trademark by persons who are not the owners or authorized licensees of the marks. OCOGs must register their logos or emblems so that, accordingly, no person may use these marks on merchandise or to exploit partnership rights unless so authorized by the OCOG. This act and other copyright laws protect the OCOG marks throughout the world.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

Тематики
- спорт (защита интеллектуальной собственности)
EN
- trade marks act
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > trade marks act
4 complementary trade

торг. взаимодополняющая торговля ( на основе взаимодополняющей производственной специализации)

For a country to protect its own environment against damage from consumption and disposal of domestically-produced or imported products, it might be necessary to apply complementary trade measures — for e.g. in requiring catalytic converters in imported cars where similar requirements are there in domestically produced cars. — Для того, чтобы защитить окружающую среду страны от ущерба, наносимого потреблением и утилизацией произведенных внутри страны или импортируемых товаров, возможно, необходимо применить меры взаимодополняющей торговли, напр., требовать, чтобы импортируемые автомобили были снабжены каталитическими конвертерами, если аналогичные требования выдвигаются по отношению к автомобилям, произведенным внутри страны.

Англо-русский экономический словарь > complementary trade
5 right

1. n
1) право

2) (the right) полит. правые

•

to abandon a right — отказываться от права

to abolish / to abrogate a right — отменять право

to abuse smb's rights — 1) нарушать / ущемлять чьи-л. права 2) злоупотреблять правами

to accept a right — соглашаться с правом

to accrue a right — приобретать право

to achieve one's legitimate rights — добиваться осуществления своих законных прав

to acknowledge rights — признавать права

to alter rights — изменять права

to assert smb's rights — отстаивать / защищать чьи-л. права, выступать в защиту чьих-л. прав

to be equal in rights — быть равноправным

to be within one's rights in doing smth — быть вправе делать что-л.

to challenge smb's right — оспаривать чье-л. право

to champion smb's rights — отстаивать / защищать чьи-л. права, выступать в защиту чьих-л. прав

to come out in support of smb's rights — отстаивать / защищать чьи-л. права, выступать в защиту чьих-л. прав

to consolidate smb's rights — усиливать чьи-л. права

to contest smb's right — оспаривать чье-л. право

to contravene human rights — противоречить правам человека

to curtail the rights — урезать кого-л. в правах, ограничивать чьи-л. права

to deny smb's right — лишать кого-л. права, отказывать кому-л. в праве

to deprive smb of right — лишать кого-л. права, отказывать кому-л. в праве

to dispute smb's right — оспаривать чье-л. право

to encourage respect for human rights — поощрять уважение прав человека

to enjoy a right to smth / to do smth — обладать / пользоваться правом, иметь право на что-л. / делать что-л.

to enshrine the right of citizenship in the constitution — записывать право гражданства в конституции

to ensure a right — обеспечивать право

to erode smb's rights — ущемлять чьи-л. права

to establish a right — устанавливать право

to exercise a right — использовать / осуществлять право, пользоваться правом

to fight for social rights and liberties — бороться за социальные права и свободы

to flout democratic rights — не уважать демократические права

to forfeit one's right — утрачивать / лишаться своего права

to give / to grant smb a right — предоставлять кому-л. право

to guarantee a right — гарантировать право

to have a right to smth / to do smth — обладать / пользоваться правом, иметь право на что-л. / делать что-л.

to honor human rights — соблюдать права человека

to implement a right — использовать / осуществлять право, пользоваться правом

to infringe smb's rights — ущемлять чьи-л. права

to limit a right — ограничивать право

to lose a right — утрачивать право

to maintain smb's rights — отстаивать / защищать чьи-л. права, выступать в защиту чьих-л. прав

to make new commitments to human rights — брать на себя новые обязательства в деле соблюдения прав человека

to monitor human rights — следить за соблюдением прав человека

to observe human rights — соблюдать права человека

to place restrictions on the rights — устанавливать ограничения на права

to prejudice a right — наносить ущерб праву

to preserve a right — сохранять право

to proclaim a right — провозглашать право

to promote respect for and observance of human rights — поощрять уважение и соблюдение прав человека

to protect a right — защищать право

to push smb to the right — полит. жарг. приводить к чьему-л. сдвигу вправо

to reaffirm one's right — подтверждать свое право

to realize a right — использовать / осуществлять право; пользоваться правом

to recognize a right — признавать право

to redeem one's rights — восстанавливать свои права

to refuse smb right — лишать кого-л. права, отказывать кому-л. в праве

to relinquish / to renounce a right — отказываться от права

to remove smb's right — лишать кого-л. права, отказывать кому-л. в праве

to reserve a right to do smth — оставлять / сохранять за собой право делать что-л.

to respect a right — уважать право

to restore one's rights — восстанавливать свои права

to restrict a right — ограничивать право

to retain a right — сохранять право

to revive one's rights — восстанавливать свои права

to revoke smb's rights — аннулировать чьи-л. права

to stand up for smb's rights — отстаивать / защищать чьи-л. права, выступать в защиту чьих-л. прав

to strengthen smb's rights — усиливать чьи-л. права

to strip smb of a right — лишать кого-л. права, отказывать кому-л. в праве

to struggle for a right — бороться за право

to suppress smb's right — подавлять чьи-л. права

to trample on human rights — попирать права человека

to uphold the right — поддерживать чье-л. право

to vindicate smb's rights — отстаивать / защищать чьи-л. права, выступать в защиту чьих-л. прав

to violate smb's rights — нарушать / ущемлять чьи-л. права

to waive a right — отказываться от права

- a country's right to protect itself
- abortion right
- abridgment of rights
- abuse of rights
- advocates of human rights
- assault on smb's rights
- basic rights
- belligerent rights
- campaigner for human rights
- capitulations rights
- center right
- champion of human rights
- civic rights
- civil rights
- commitment to human rights
- confirmation right
- constitutional right
- contractual rights
- country's record on human rights
- crackdown against human rights

- crude violation of rights
- cultural rights
- curtailment of rights
- declaration of rights
- declaration on rights
- defendant's right to silence
- democratic rights
- deprivation of rights
- disregard for human rights
- disregard of human rights
- drift to the right in the government
- drift to the right
- economic rights
- electoral right
- entry rights to a country
- equal rights
- essential right
- European Court of Human Rights
- exclusive rights
- explicit recognition of a country's right to exist
- fishing right
- flagrant violation of rights
- flagrant violations of rights
- frustration of rights
- full right
- fundamental rights
- gay rights
- guaranteed right
- honorable right
- human rights
- hypocrisy over human rights
- immutable right
- implementation of rights
- improved human rights
- inalienable right
- individual rights
- infringement of smb's rights
- infringements of smb's rights
- inherent right
- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
- invasion of smb's rights
- irrevocable right
- lack of rights
- lacking rights
- land right
- landing right
- lawful right
- legal right
- legitimate right
- minority rights
- monopoly right
- moral-political right
- national rights
- nation's right to self-determination
- navigation right
- negotiating right
- observance of human rights

- occupation rights
- oil exploration right
- on the political right
- overflying right
- parental rights
- people's basic rights
- personal rights
- political rights
- port right
- postures about human rights
- preferential right
- procedural rights
- proprietary right
- protection of rights
- realization of rights
- recognition of rights
- religious right
- respect for rights
- respect of rights
- restoration of rights to smb
- restoration of smb's rights
- right of abode
- right of accession
- right of appeal
- right of assembly
- right of association
- right of asylum
- right of authorship
- right of conscience
- right of defense
- right of entry to a country
- right of freedom of thought, conscience and religion
- right of impeachment of the President
- right of inheritance
- right of innocent passage
- right of learning
- right of nations / peoples of self-determination
- right of nations / peoples to self-determination
- right of navigation
- right of passage
- right of peoples to determine their own destiny
- right of peoples to order their own destinies
- right of possession
- right of property
- right of publication
- right of recourse
- right of reply
- right of secession
- right of self-defense
- right of settlement
- right of sovereignty
- right of the defendant to remain silence
- right of veto
- right of visit
- right of workers to strike
- right to a nationality

- right to an abortion
- right to assembly
- right to associate in public organizations
- right to choose one's own destiny
- right to demonstrate
- right to education
- right to elect and be elected
- right to emigrate
- right to equality before the law
- right to exist
- right to fly a maritime flag
- right to form and to join trade unions
- right to free choice of employment
- right to free education
- right to free medical services
- right to free speech
- right to freedom of conscience
- right to freedom of opinion and expression
- right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association
- right to freedom of religion
- right to freedom of thought
- right to health protection
- right to housing
- right to independence
- right to inherit
- right to juridical equality
- right to keep and bear arms
- right to know
- right to labor
- right to life, liberty and security of person
- right to maintenance
- right to marry and to found a family
- right to material security in old age, sickness and disability
- right to national autonomy
- right to national independence and sovereignty
- right to one's own convictions
- right to own property
- right to privacy
- right to residence
- right to rest and leisure
- right to rest
- right to run the country
- right to sail
- right to secede
- right to security of person
- right to self-rule
- right to silence
- right to sit the case before the court
- right to social insurance
- right to speedy trial
- right to study in the native language
- right to take part in government
- right to take part in the management and administration of state and public affairs
- right to territorial integrity
- right to trial by jury
- right to vote
- right to work
- rights don't come without responsibilities
- rights of a man
- rights of minorities
- rights of national minorities
- rights of small states
- rights of the child
- rights of trade unions
- sacred right
- SDR
- social rights
- socio-political rights
- sole right
- sovereign right
- special drawing rights
- suppression of civil rights

- suspension of a right
- swing to the right in the government
- swing to the right
- tensions on human rights
- territorial rights
- theoretical right to secede from a country
- trade union rights
- transit right
- treaty rights
- unconditional right
- undisputed right
- unequal rights
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights

- upholder of civil rights
- veto right
- vital rights
- voting right
- waiver of a right
- with a right to vote
- without a right to vote 2. a
1) правый, правильный

2) полит. ( часто Right) правый

•

- extreme right
- far right

Politics english-russian dictionary > right
6 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
7 Kay (of Bury), John

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

b. 16 July 1704 Walmersley, near Bury, Lancashire, England

d. 1779 France

[br]

English inventor of the flying shuttle.

[br]

John Kay was the youngest of five sons of a yeoman farmer of Walmersley, near Bury, Lancashire, who died before his birth. John was apprenticed to a reedmaker, and just before he was 21 he married a daughter of John Hall of Bury and carried on his trade in that town until 1733. It is possible that his first patent, taken out in 1730, was connected with this business because it was for an engine that made mohair thread for tailors and twisted and dressed thread; such thread could have been used to bind up the reeds used in looms. He also improved the reeds by making them from metal instead of cane strips so they lasted much longer and could be made to be much finer. His next patent in 1733, was a double one. One part of it was for a batting machine to remove dust from wool by beating it with sticks, but the patent is better known for its description of the flying shuttle. Kay placed boxes to receive the shuttle at either end of the reed or sley. Across the open top of these boxes was a metal rod along which a picking peg could slide and drive the shuttle out across the loom. The pegs at each end were connected by strings to a stick that was held in the right hand of the weaver and which jerked the shuttle out of the box. The shuttle had wheels to make it "fly" across the warp more easily, and ran on a shuttle race to support and guide it. Not only was weaving speeded up, but the weaver could produce broader cloth without any aid from a second person. This invention was later adapted for the power loom. Kay moved to Colchester and entered into partnership with a baymaker named Solomon Smith and a year later was joined by William Carter of Ballingdon, Essex. His shuttle was received with considerable hostility in both Lancashire and Essex, but it was probably more his charge of 15 shillings a year for its use that roused the antagonism. From 1737 he was much involved with lawsuits to try and protect his patent, particularly the part that specified the method of winding the thread onto a fixed bobbin in the shuttle. In 1738 Kay patented a windmill for working pumps and an improved chain pump, but neither of these seems to have been successful. In 1745, with Joseph Stell of Keighley, he patented a narrow fabric loom that could be worked by power; this type may have been employed by Gartside in Manchester soon afterwards. It was probably through failure to protect his patent rights that Kay moved to France, where he arrived penniless in 1747. He went to the Dutch firm of Daniel Scalongne, woollen manufacturers, in Abbeville. The company helped him to apply for a French patent for his shuttle, but Kay wanted the exorbitant sum of £10,000. There was much discussion and eventually Kay set up a workshop in Paris, where he received a pension of 2,500 livres. However, he was to face the same problems as in England with weavers copying his shuttle without permission. In 1754 he produced two machines for making card clothing: one pierced holes in the leather, while the other cut and sharpened the wires. These were later improved by his son, Robert Kay. Kay returned to England briefly, but was back in France in 1758. He was involved with machines to card both cotton and wool and tried again to obtain support from the French Government. He was still involved with developing textile machines in 1779, when he was 75, but he must have died soon afterwards. As an inventor Kay was a genius of the first rank, but he was vain, obstinate and suspicious and was destitute of business qualities.

[br]

Bibliography

1730, British patent no. 515 (machine for making mohair thread). 1733, British patent no. 542 (batting machine and flying shuttle). 1738, British patent no. 561 (pump windmill and chain pump). 1745, with Joseph Stell, British patent no. 612 (power loom).

Further Reading

B.Woodcroft, 1863, Brief Biographies of Inventors or Machines for the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics, London.

J.Lord, 1903, Memoir of John Kay, (a more accurate account).

Descriptions of his inventions may be found in A.Barlow, 1878, The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power, London; R.L. Hills, 1970, Power in the

Industrial Revolution, Manchester; and C.Singer (ed.), 1957, A History of

Technology, Vol. III, Oxford: Clarendon Press. The most important record, however, is in A.P.Wadsworth and J. de L. Mann, 1931, The Cotton Trade and Industrial

Lancashire, Manchester.

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Kay (of Bury), John
8 law

n

1) закон

- in law

- according to law

- by authority of law

- force of law

- in law and in fact

- act of the law

- body of laws

- rule of law

- protect by the rule of law

- abrogation of laws

- breach of law

- intended breach of the law

- prescribed by the law

- sphere of application of the law

- process of law

- offences against law

- in the silence of the law

- abolish a law

- be equal before the law

- be effective as law

- become law

- break the law

- violate the law

- come into conflict with law

- enact a law

- evade beyond the law

- go beyond the law

- comply with the law

- introduce the law

- make a law

- observe the laws

- promulgate a law

- repeal a law

- stretch the law

- except from operation of a law

- toughen up laws

- hold good in law

- keep within the law

- lay down the law

- laws and regulations

- laws and regulations in force in a country

- national laws and regulations

- internal laws and regulations

- laws and regulations regarding privileges and immunities of international organizations

- laws and regulations of the host country

- laws and regulations on the regime of the territorial sea

- accident investigation laws and regulations

- in accordance with laws and regulations

- laws and customs applicable in armed conflicts

- laws and customs of war on land

- laws and practice in the country

- law and order

2) право; правоведение; законодательство

- laws concerning acquisition of nationality

- laws concerning the treatment of aliens

- law relating to the environment

- system of law

- choice of law

- conflict of laws

- law of conflict of laws

- definition of law

- general principles of law

- source of law

- unity of the law

- restatement of law

- enact into law

- enforce the law

- recognize as law

- conditions provided by the law

- the law of the state requested shall apply in all cases

- take law advice

3) судебный процесс

- take law proceedings against smb.

- institute law proceedings against smb.

4) закон (природы, научный)

- conformity to the laws of history

5) правило

•

- humanitarian law of war

- international criminal law relating to warfare

- land law

- constitutional law

- Law of the Hague

- existing law

- humanitarian law

- law government

- system of conventional rules of international law

- law of international monetary transactions

- full subject of international law

- public law

- universal international law

- doctrine of the law of nature

- remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law

- ambassadorial law

- functioning of international law

- institution of international law

- range of the domination of international law

- international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts

- principles of international economic development law

- merchant law

- christian law

- judiciary law

- general rules of international law

- emergency law

- organic law

- customary rules of international law

- uniform law on international sales

- free-trade law

- law of obligation

- laws of warfare at sea

- law of descents

- law of the sea

- special rules of international law

- law of international transport by sea

- binding nature of international law

- fundamental law

- under common law

- naval prize law

- emergency laws

- basic laws of development

- domestic law

- law of criminal procedure

- local rules of international law

- law institution

- Law of Geneva

- law of nature

- local law

- equity law

- common law

- environmental law

- conventional law

- law of arbitral procedure

- municipal public law

- Islamic law

- law of treaties

- substantive law

- Koranic law

- club law

- universally recognized principles of international law

- tacit law

- law ethics

- law of domestic relations

- law foundation

- rule of the law of nations

- case law

- object of international law

- law order

- subject of international law

- good law

- law of succession in respect of treaties on economic and financial matters

- municipal law

- international economic and investment law

- fiscal law

- written law

- State law

- law language

- parliamentary law

- law of contract

- law profession

- rule of international law

- law of civil procedure

- law of persons

- primacy of international law over internal legislation

- consuetudinary law

- incompatibility with the rules of international law

- dictates of international law

- under international law

- natural law

- customary maritime law

- penal law

- judicial law

- codification of international law

- judge-made law

- law act

- labour law

- labour laws

- air law

- law of international transport by air

- administrative law

- law of actions

- law person

- general international law

- laws of humanity

- sanitary laws

- break the law of nations

- fundamental notions of international law

- international economic development law

- law costs

- settled law

- political law

- law of international investment

- law of penal procedure

- church law

- martial law

- comparative law

- private law

- principle of conventional international law

- law history

- internal laws

- international private law

- Admiralty law

- law of insurance

- English law

- maritime law

- agrarian law

- law of uneven development

- dialectical law of opposites

- regional international law

- conventional international law

- incompatibility with the norms of international law

- law obligation

- international law

- law of evidence

- laws of the receiving state

- established law

- law of peace

- nationality law

- foreign public law

- particular international law

- universal character of international law

- commercial law

- business law

- fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law

- safety law

- diplomatic law

- law action

- extend free-trade law to farm produce

- law of nations

- trade law

- law claim

- law of state responsibility

- state law

- law of honour

- real subject of international law

- universally recognized rule of the law of nations

- Crown law

- law voter

- governed by international law

- be pursuant to the domestic law of the receiving state

- pass laws

- harsh law

- effectiveness of international law

- naval law

- source of international law

- law of procedure

- inconsistency with international law

- outer space law

- law of customs

- law of international trade

- unenforced law

- civil law

- be bound by the law of nations

- principle of international law

- public international law

- national law

- customary law

- doctrine of international law

- internal law

- law procedure

- law of economic rationality

- criminal law

- law decision

- customary international law

- violation of international law

- rule of customary international law

- law of war

- revised laws

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > law
9 Port Wine

   Portugal's most famous wine and leading export takes its name from the city of Oporto or porto, which means "port" or "harbor" in Portuguese. Sometimes described as "the Englishman's wine," port is only one of the many wines produced in continental Portugal and the Atlantic islands. Another noted dessert wine is Madeira wine, which is produced on the island of Madeira. Port wine's history is about as long as that of Madeira wine, but the wine's development is recent compared to that of older table wines and the wines Greeks and Romans enjoyed in ancient Lusitania. During the Roman occupation of the land (ca. 210 BCE-300 CE), wine was being made from vines cultivated in the upper Douro River valley. Favorable climate and soils (schist with granite outcropping) and convenient transportation (on ships down the Douro River to Oporto) were factors that combined with increased wine production in the late 17th century to assist in the birth of port wine as a new product. Earlier names for port wine ( vinho do porto) were descriptive of location ("Wine of the Douro Bank") and how it was transported ("Wine of [Ship] Embarkation").

   Port wine, a sweet, fortified (with brandy) aperitif or dessert wine that was designed as a valuable export product for the English market, was developed first in the 1670s by a unique combination of circumstances and the action of interested parties. Several substantial English merchants who visited Oporto "discovered" that a local Douro wine was much improved when brandy ( aguardente) was added. Fortification prevented the wine from spoiling in a variety of temperatures and on the arduous sea voyages from Oporto to Great Britain. Soon port wine became a major industry of the Douro region; it involved an uneasy alliance between the English merchant-shippers at Oporto and Vila Nova de Gaia, the town across the river from Oporto, where the wine was stored and aged, and the Portuguese wine growers.

   In the 18th century, port wine became a significant element of Britain's foreign imports and of the country's establishment tastes in beverages. Port wine drinking became a hallowed tradition in Britain's elite Oxford and Cambridge Universities' colleges, which all kept port wine cellars. For Portugal, the port wine market in Britain, and later in France, Belgium, and other European countries, became a vital element in the national economy. Trade in port wine and British woolens became the key elements in the 1703 Methuen Treaty between England and Portugal.

   To lessen Portugal's growing economic dependence on Britain, regulate the production and export of the precious sweet wine, and protect the public from poor quality, the Marquis of Pombal instituted various measures for the industry. In 1756, Pombal established the General Company of Viticulture of the Upper Douro to carry out these measures. That same year, he ordered the creation of the first demarcated wine-producing region in the world, the port-wine producing Douro region. Other wine-producing countries later followed this Portuguese initiative and created demarcated wine regions to protect the quality of wine produced and to ensure national economic interests.

   The upper Douro valley region (from Barca d'Alva in Portugal to Barqueiros on the Spanish frontier) produces a variety of wines; only 40 percent of its wines are port wine, whereas 60 percent are table wines. Port wine's alcohol content varies usually between 19 and 22 percent, and, depending on the type, the wine is aged in wooden casks from two to six years and then bottled. Related to port wine's history is the history of Portuguese cork. Beginning in the 17th century, Portuguese cork, which comes from cork trees, began to be used to seal wine bottles to prevent wine from spoiling. This innovation in Portugal helped lead to the development of the cork industry. By the early 20th century, Portugal was the world's largest exporter of cork.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Port Wine
10 policy

n 1. ком. політика; курс; стратегія; лінія поведінки; a політичний; 2. стр. поліс; страховий поліс

1. напрямок діяльності, інтересів політичних партій, адміністративних рад, організацій, урядів і т. ін. для досягнення своїх цілей; 2. договір (contract) страхування, в якому фіксуються: вид покриття; умови угоди, включаючи положення про скасування; заява про виплату відшкодування тощо; календарний план, що зазначає, напр., оплату страхових внесків (premium²), період чинності угоди і т. д.

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accounting policy облікова політика; administrative policy адміністративна політика; adjustment policy політика регулювання • політика коригування; agreed value policy страховий поліс на домовлену суму; agricultural policy аграрна політика; all loss or damage policy поліс страхування від будь-яких втрат або пошкодження; allocation policy політика розподілу ресурсів; all risk policy поліс страхування від усіх ризиків; balance-of-payments policy політика регулювання платіжного балансу; blanket policy загальний поліс; budgetary policy бюджетна політика; business policy ділова політика; commercial policy торговельна політика; company policy політика підприємства; comprehensive policy поліс всебічного страхування; construction policy страховий поліс на будівництво; contractor's all risk policy поліс страхування від усіх ризиків для підрядника; corporate policy корпоративна політика; credit policy кредитна політика; currency policy валютна політика; discount policy облікова політика • дисконтна політика; dividend policy дивідендна політика; domestic policy внутрішня політика; economic policy економічна політика; endowment policy страховий поліс на старість • страховий поліс на дожиття • страхування на випадок смерті; environmental policy політика охорони довкілля; equity-linked policy страховий поліс, прибуток з якого страхувач вкладає в різні акції; expired policy прострочений страховий поліс; export policy експортна політика; financial policy фінансова політика; fire insurance policy страховий поліс від пожежі; fiscal policy фінансова політика • бюджетна політика; floating policy генеральний поліс; foreign policy зовнішня політика; foreign exchange policy валютна політика; foreign trade policy зовнішньоторговельна політика; government policy урядова політика; government environmental policy урядова політика охорони навколишнього середовища; Green policy політика захисту довкілля; group policy групова політика; homeowner's comprehensive policy поліс комбінованого страхування домовласників; immigration policy імміграційна політика; incomes policy політика регулювання доходів; inflationary policy інфляційна політика; insurance policy страховий поліс; interest rate policy політика регулювання відсоткових ставок; internal policy внутрішня політика; international policy міжнародна політика; international monetary policy міжнародна валютна політика • міжнародна грошова політика; investment policy інвестиційна політика • страховий поліс за інвестицією; investment-linked policy страховий поліс, прибуток з якого страхувач вкладає в різні акції; lapsed policy поліс, чинність якого припинена достроково; lending policy кредитна політика; life insurance policy поліс страхування життя; management policy виконавча політика • політика керівництва; marine insurance policy поліс морського страхування; master policy груповий поліс; merchandising policy торговельна політика; mixed policy змішаний поліс; monetary policy валютна політика • грошово-кредитна політика • монетарна політика; new-for-old policy страховий поліс на заміну; open policy відкритий поліс • нетаксований поліс; open-door policy політика відкритості (рівних можливостей капіталовкладень в окремих країнах); paid-up policy оплачений поліс; participating policy поліс, який дає право участі в прибутках страхового товариства; port policy портовий страховий поліс; prices and incomes policy державна політика цін та доходів; pricing policy політика ціноутворення; procurement policy політика закупівлі; public policy громадська політика • державна політика; purchasing policy політика закупівлі; rated policy розрахований страховий поліс; replacement policy стратегія заміни (обладнання); retirement policy пенсійна політика; running policy генеральний поліс; sales policy політика збуту • політика продажу; service policy стратегія обслуговування; sinking fund policy страховий поліс за фондом сплати • страховий поліс за фондом сплати активу або пасиву • поліс амортизаційного фонду; standard policy стандартний поліс • типовий поліс; stocking policy політика створення запасів; taxation policy податкова політика; time policy поліс на термін • строковий поліс; trade policy торговельна політика; unit-linked policy страховий поліс, прибуток з якого страхувач вкладає в різні акції; unvalued policy страховий поліс без визначеної вартості; valued policy страховий поліс за встановлену суму • таксований страховий поліс; voyage policy рейсовий поліс; wagering policy страховий поліс на заставу; wages policy політика заробітної плати • політика в галузі оплати праці; wait-and-see policy вичікувальна політика

═════════□═════════

policy audit ревізія діяльності підприємства; policy conditions умови страхування; policy exclusion анулювання страхового полісу; policy expiration date дата закінчення терміну страхування; policy expiry date дата закінчення терміну страхування; policy free of premium поліс, в якому страхувач звільняється від сплати внесків; policy holder страхувальник • держатель страхового полісу; policy holder's capital капітал страхувальника; policy loan позика під страховий поліс; policy-making process процес здійснення політики; policy number номер страхового полісу; policy of compromise політика компромісів; policy of law правова політика; policy of low interest rates політика низьких відсоткових ставок; policy owner страхувальник • держатель страхового полісу; policy period термін страхування • термін дії страхового полісу; policy plan план діяльності; policy provisions умови страхування • умови страхового договору; policy terms умови страхування • умови страхового договору; policy tool засіб проведення політики • політичний інструмент; to amend a policy змінювати/змінити поліс; to cancel a policy скасовувати/скасувати поліс; to develop a policy опрацьовувати/опрацювати політику; to discuss a policy обговорювати/обговорити питання політики • розглядати/розглянути питання політики; to implement a policy запроваджувати/запровадити політику • здійснювати/здійснити політику; to issue a policy видавати/видати страховий поліс; to make out a policy оформляти/оформити страховий поліс; to revise a policy переглядати/переглянути політику; to support a policy підтримувати/підтримати політику; to take out a policy страхуватися/застрахуватися • одержувати/одержати страховий поліс

═════════◇═════════

поліс < фр. police < італ. polizza — розписка, квитанція (СІС:535) pollution

сер. забруднення; забруднення довкілля

забруднення довкілля промисловими чи хімічними відходами, що робить його непридатним і шкідливим для життя; ♦ спостерігається посилення державного контролю за рівнем забруднення довкілля, широко застосовуються штрафні санкції аж до закриття підприємств, виробництв, арешту транспортних засобів на підставі вимог чинного удосконаленого природоохоронного законодавства; здійснюється широка урядова програма оновлення технологій, глибокої переробки сировини, інформаційного забезпечення боротьби за охорону природи, зростає екологічна поінформованість людей і поліпшується екологічна культура промисловості, як результат — на ринку з'являються продукти, більш сприятливі для довкілля (environment-friendly product)

═════════■═════════

airborne policy повітряне забруднення • забруднення повітря; atmospheric policy атмосферне забруднення; chemical policy хімічне забруднення; environmental policy забруднення довкілля; hazardous waste policy забруднення небезпечними відходами; industrial policy промислове забруднення; long-term policy тривале забруднення; noise policy зашумленість; sewage policy забруднення стічними водами; short-term policy короткочасне забруднення; solid waste policy забруднення відходами, що не розкладаються; traffic policy забруднення від автотранспорту; visual policy візуальне забруднення довкілля • плюндрування природи плакатами, написами (на скелях тощо); waste policy забруднення відходами; water policy забруднення води; wide-spread policy поширене забруднення

═════════□═════════

optimal quantity of policy оптимальний обсяг забруднення; policy abatement заходи запобігання забрудненню • боротьба із забрудненням; policy of streams забруднення стоків; policy of rivers забруднення річок; policy of the sea забруднення моря; to avoid policy уникати/уникнути забруднення; to prevent policy запобігати/запобігти забрудненню; to protect from policy оберігати/оберегти від забруднення

The English-Ukrainian Dictionary > policy
11 bill

n

1) счет

2) список

3) документ (удостоверение, свидетельство и т.п.)

4) вексель; тратта

5) амер. банкнота, казначейский билет

6) законопроект

- acceptance bill of exchange
- accepted bill
- accommodation bill
- account bill
- addressed bill
- advance bill
- after date bill
- after sight bill
- air bill
- air bill of lading
- aircraft bill of lading
- airfreight bill
- airway bill
- appropriation bill
- auction bill
- backed bill
- balance bill
- bank bill
- bankable bill
- banker's bill
- bearer bill
- bearer bill of lading
- blank bill
- budget bill
- claused bill of exchange
- claused bill of lading
- clean bill of exchange
- clean bill of health
- clean bill of lading
- clearance bill
- collateral bill
- collective bill of lading
- commercial bill of exchange
- counter bill
- credit bill
- cross bill
- currency bill
- customs bill
- demand bill
- demand bill of exchange
- dirty bill of lading
- discount bill
- discountable bill
- dishonoured bill
- documentary bill
- documentary bill of exchange
- domestic bill
- domiciliated bill of exchange
- draft bill
- drawn bill
- due bill
- eligible bill
- endorsed bill
- exchequer bill
- expired bill
- extended bill
- ficticious bill
- finance bill
- fine bill
- fine bank bill
- fine trade bill
- first bill of exchange
- first-rate bill
- foreign bill of exchange
- forged bill
- foul bill of health
- foul bill of lading
- freight bill
- Freight Collect bill of lading
- Freight Paid bill of lading
- garage bill
- gilt-edged bill
- grouped bill of lading
- guarantee bill
- guaranteed bill
- hand bill
- honoured bill
- hot treasury bills
- in-clearing bill
- ineligible bill
- inland bill
- inscribed bill
- interim bill
- investment bill
- inward bill of lading
- local bill
- long bill
- long-dated bill
- long-range bill
- long-term bill
- master bill of materials
- matured bill
- mercantile bill
- negotiable bill
- nonnegotiable bill
- noted bill
- ocean bill of lading
- omnibus bill of lading
- on board bill of lading
- order bill
- order bill of lading
- ordinary bill
- original bill
- out-clearing bill
- outland bill
- outstanding bill of exchange
- outward bill of lading
- overdue bill
- paid bill of exchange
- past-due bill
- pawned bill
- payment bill
- port bill of lading
- prime bill
- proforma bill
- prolonged bill
- protested bill
- provisional bill
- raised bill
- received for shipment bill of lading
- rediscounted bill
- renewal bill
- repairs bill
- returned bill
- second bill
- secured bill
- security bill
- shipped bill of lading
- shipping bill
- short bill
- short-dated bill
- short-termed bill
- sight bill
- single bill
- sola bill
- sole bill
- straight bill of lading
- suspected bill of health
- tax bill
- telephone bill
- term bill
- third bill
- through bill of lading
- time bill
- touched bill of health
- trade bill
- transhipment bill of lading
- treasury bill
- truck bill of lading
- unclean bill of lading
- uncollectible bill
- uncovered bill
- undiscountable bill
- unexpired bill
- uniform bill of lading
- unpaid bill
- unprotected bill
- unsecured bill
- upcoming bill
- usance bill
- victualling bill
- wage bill
- window bill
- bill after date
- bill after sight
- bill at short date
- bill at sight
- bill at usance
- bill for collection
- bills in circulation
- bills in hand
- bills in a set
- bill of acceptance
- bill of adventure
- bill of charges
- bill of clearance
- bill of costs
- bill of credit
- bill of entry
- bill of exchange
- bill of expenses
- bill of fare
- bill of goods
- bill of health
- bill of indictment
- bill of lading
- bill of materials
- bill of parcels
- bill of products
- bill of quantities
- bill of redraft
- bill of review
- bill of sale
- bill of sight
- bill of store
- bill of stores
- bill of sufference
- bill of victualling
- bill to bearer
- bill to the order of another person
- bill to one's own order
- bill with recourse
- bills discounted
- bills payable
- bills receivable
- bill drawn against commodity
- bills drawn in a set
- bill noted for protest
- accept a bill
- accept a bill for collection
- accept a bill for discount
- advise a bill
- amend a bill
- back a bill
- cancel a bill
- cash a bill
- collect a bill
- cover a bill
- discharge a bill
- discount a bill
- dishonour a bill
- domicile a bill
- draw a bill of exchange
- draw a bill on a bank
- endorse a bill
- endorse a bill in blank
- fill the bill
- foot the bill
- get a bill protested
- give a bill of exchange
- give a bill on discount
- give security for a bill
- guarantee a bill
- have a bill noted
- have a bill protested
- honour a bill
- issue a bill of exchange
- make a bill payable to order
- make out a bill
- meet a bill
- negotiate a bill of exchange
- note a bill for protest
- pay a bill
- pay a bill at maturity
- pay by means of a bill
- prepare a bill
- present a bill for acceptance
- present a bill for payment
- prolong a bill of exchange
- protect a bill of exchange
- rediscount a bill of exchange
- redraw a bill
- remit a bill for collection
- renew a bill of exchange
- retire a bill
- return a bill under protest
- settle a bill
- sign a bill of exchange per procuration
- take a bill on discount
- take up a bill of exchange
- withdraw a bill
- write out a bill

English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > bill
12 bill

1) счет

2) список

3) документ (удостоверение, свидетельство и т. п.)

4) вексель; тратта

5) амер. банкнота, казначейский билет

6) законопроект

•

- accepted bill

- accommodation bill

- addressed bill

- after date bill

- appropriation bill

- auction bill

- backed bill

- balance bill

- bank bill

- bankable bill

- banker's bill

- bearer bill

- blank bill

- budget bill

- claused bill

- claused bill of lading

- clean bill of lading

- clearance bill

- collateral bill

- collective bill of lading

- commercial bill

- counter bill

- credit bill

- cross bill

- currency bill

- customs bill

- demand bill

- discount bill

- discountable bill

- dishonoured bill

- documentary bill

- domestic bill

- domiciled bill

- draft bill

- drawn bill

- due bill

- eligible bills

- endorsed bill

- exchequer bill

- expired bill

- extended bill

- ficticious bill

- fine bank bill

- fine trade bill

- first-rate bill

- foreign bill

- forged bill

- gilt-edged bill

- guaranteed bill

- honoured bill

- hot treasury bills

- ineligible bill

- inland bill

- inscribed bill

- local bill

- long-term bill

- mature bill

- mercantile bill

- negotiable bill

- nonnegotiable bill

- noted bill

- ordinary bill

- original bill

- outstanding bill

- overdue bill

- paid bill

- past-due bill

- pawned bill

- prime bill

- prolonged bill

- protested bill

- rediscounted bill

- renewal bill

- returned bill

- secured bill

- security bill

- short-term bill

- sight bill

- tax bill

- telephone bill

- term bill

- trade bills

- treasury bills

- unclean bill of lading

- uncollectible bill

- uncovered bill

- undiscountable bill

- unexpired bill

- unpaid bill

- unsecured bill

- upcoming bill

- bill after date

- bill after sight

- bill at short date

- bill at sight

- bill at usance

- bill for collection

- bills in circulation

- bill of charges

- bill of clearance

- bill of costs

- bill of entry

- bill of exchange

- bill of expenses

- bill of sale

- bill to bearer

- bill to the order of another person

- bill to one's own order

- accept a bill

- accept a bill for collection

- accept a bill for discount

- advise a bill

- amend a bill

- back a bill

- break the bill into smaller denominations

- cancel a bill

- cash a bill

- collect a bill

- cover a bill

- discharge a bill

- discount a bill

- dishonour a bill

- domicile a bill

- draw a bill

- endorse a bill

- endorse a bill in blank

- foot the bill

- get a bill protested

- give security for a bill

- guarantee a bill

- have a bill noted

- honour a bill

- issue a bill

- make a bill payable to order

- make out a bill

- meet a bill

- negotiate a bill

- note a bill for protest

- pay a bill

- pay a bill at maturity

- pay by means of a bill

- prepare a bill

- present a bill for acceptance

- present a bill for payment

- prolong a bill

- protect a bill

- rediscount a bill

- remit a bill for collection

- renew a bill

- retire a bill

- return a bill under protest

- settle a bill

- sign a bill of exchange per procuration

- take a bill on discount

- take up a bill

- withdraw a bill

- write out a bill

- bills domiciled in France

- bills drawn against commodity

- bills drawn in a set

- bill noted for protest

- bills payable

- bills receivable

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > bill
13 Ip
1. точка [место] идентификации
2. степень защиты (обеспечиваемая оболочкой)
3. сетевой протокол Интернета
4. протокол управления передачей (в информационных технологиях)
5. протокол управления передачей (в электросвязи)
6. протокол управления передачей (в вычислительных сетях)
7. протокол Интернета
8. промежуточное давление
9. поставщик информации
10. показатель производительности
11. обработка изображения
12. начальная перестановка (в DES-алгоритме)
13. межперсональный
14. исходная точка
15. источник информации (в видеотексных системах)
16. Интернет-протокол
17. Интернет протокол
18. интеллектуальная собственность
19. Институт нефти (США)
20. включающая способность при коротком замыкании, Ip
включающая способность при коротком замыкании, Ip
-

Тематики
- аппарат, изделие, устройство...
- выключатель автоматический
- выключатель, переключатель
EN
- Ip
- short-circuit making current
Институт нефти (США)
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики
- энергетика в целом
EN
- Institute of Petroleum
- IP
Интернет-протокол
Межсетевой протокол пакетной передачи, который: - работает с 32-битовыми адресами, обеспечивает адресацию и маршрутизацию пакетов в сети; - работает без установления соединения, не обеспечивает сохранение порядка следования пакетов, не гарантирует доставку пакетов.
[ ГОСТ Р 54456-2011]

Тематики
- телевидение, радиовещание, видео
EN
- Internet protocol
- IP
интеллектуальная собственность
Владение чем-либо (авторскими правами, патентом, художественной разработкой), что является продуктом творческой или умственной деятельности правообладателя.
[ http://www.morepc.ru/dict/]

интеллектуальная собственность
ИС
Нематериальные активы в виде товарных знаков, знаков обслуживания, совокупности элементов оформления товара, фирменных наименований, доменных имен и авторских прав.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

интеллектуальная собственность
Совокупность исключительных прав на результаты интеллектуальной деятельности, а также на приравненные к ним средства индивидуализации. И.с. – это собирательное понятие, охватывающее права на: результаты интеллектуальной (творческой) деятельности в области литературы, искусства, науки и техники, а также в других областях творчества; средства индивидуализации участников гражданского оборота товаров или услуг; защиту от недобросовестной конкуренции. Использование результатов интеллектуальной деятельности и средств индивидуализации, которые являются объектом исключительных прав (интеллектуальной собственности) гражданина или юридического лица, осуществляется только с согласия правообладателя на основе лицензионных и авторских договоров. См. также Промышленная собственность.
[ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]

EN

intellectual property (IP)
Intangible assets such as trademarks, service marks, trade dress, trade names, domain names and copyrights.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

Тематики
Синонимы
- ИС
EN
- intellectual property
- IP
интернет-протокол
Протокол сетевого уровня из стека TCP/IP для сетевой связи без установления соединения. Протокол обеспечивает адресацию, указание типа обслуживания пакетов ToS (type-of-service), фрагментацию, сборку и защиту передачи. Определен в RFC 791 (МСЭ-Т T.808, RFC 791).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]

интернет-протокол
Стандартный протокол, определяющий дейтаграмму, которая обеспечивает базу для доставки пакетов без установления соединения.
[ ГОСТ Р 54325-2011 (IEC/TS 61850-2:2003)]

Тематики
- релейная защита
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
- internet protocol
- IP
источник информации (в видеотексных системах)
—
[Е.С.Алексеев, А.А.Мячев. Англо-русский толковый словарь по системотехнике ЭВМ. Москва 1993]

Тематики
- информационные технологии в целом
EN
- information provider
- IP
- ip
источник информации (в видеотексных системах)
—
[Е.С.Алексеев, А.А.Мячев. Англо-русский толковый словарь по системотехнике ЭВМ. Москва 1993]

Тематики
- информационные технологии в целом
EN
- information provider
- IP
- ip
исходная точка
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики
- энергетика в целом
EN
- datumpoint
- deadpoint
- reference
- takeoff
- initial point
- IP
- ref.
межперсональный
(МСЭ-Т F.400/ Х.400).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]

Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
- interpersonal
- IP
начальная перестановка (в DES-алгоритме)
НП
—
[[http://www.rfcmd.ru/glossword/1.8/index.php?a=index&d=23]]

Тематики
- защита информации
Синонимы
- НП
EN
- initial permutation
- IP
обработка изображения
Процесс создания, редактирования и хранения изображений с помощью компьютера.
[ http://www.morepc.ru/dict/]

Тематики
- информационные технологии в целом
EN
- image processing
- IP
показатель производительности
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики
- энергетика в целом
EN
- index of performance
- IP
поставщик информации
контент-провайдер
Организация, служба или частное лицо, оказывающие различного рода информационные услуги, например, осуществляющие информационное наполнение веб-сайтов, выступающие в качестве источника информации общего пользования (сводки погоды и т.п.) или предоставляющие специального вида данные (о ближайшей аптеке, заторах дорожного движения) в сетях мобильной связи.
[Л.М. Невдяев. Телекоммуникационные технологии. Англо-русский толковый словарь-справочник. Под редакцией Ю.М. Горностаева. Москва, 2002]

Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
Синонимы
- контент-провайдер
EN
- information provider
- IP
промежуточное давление
—
[Я.Н.Лугинский, М.С.Фези-Жилинская, Ю.С.Кабиров. Англо-русский словарь по электротехнике и электроэнергетике, Москва, 1999 г.]

Тематики
- электротехника, основные понятия
EN
- intermediate pressure
- IP
протокол Интернета
Протокол сетевого уровня из стека TCP/IP для сетевой связи без установления соединения. Протокол обеспечивает адресацию, указание типа обслуживания пакетов ToS (type-of-service), фрагментацию, сборку и защиту передачи. Определен в RFC 791.
[ http://www.lexikon.ru/sputnik.html]

Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
- IP
- Internet Protocol
протокол управления передачей
протокол Internet
Известен также как стек протоколов Internet (Internet Protocol Suite). Данный стек протоколов используется в семействе сетей Internet и для объединения гетерогенных сетей. Стек протоколов TCP/IP был разработан в ARPA как часть операционной системы UNIX, а впоследствии был адаптирован в качестве сетевого стандарта для различных сред.
[ http://www.lexikon.ru/dict/net/index.html]

Тематики
- сети вычислительные
Синонимы
- протокол Internet
EN
протокол управления передачей
межсетевой протокол
Платформонезависимый набор протоколов для коммуникации в глобальных вычислительных сетях.
[ http://www.morepc.ru/dict/]

Тематики
- информационные технологии в целом
Синонимы
- межсетевой протокол
EN
протокол управления передачей
протокол интернета
стек TCP/IP
межсетевой протокол
IP
Сетевые протоколы, обеспечивающие взаимодействие в межсоединенных подсетях (включая Интернет и интранет), состоящих из компьютеров с различной архитектурой и разными операционными системами.
(МСЭ-Т J.280).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]

Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
Синонимы
- IP
- межсетевой протокол
- протокол интернета
- стек TCP/IP
EN
сетевой протокол Интернета
Основной сетевой протокол (L3) интернет-сетей, обеспечивающий адресацию узлов сети и маршрутизацию пакетов к адресату.
Основной протокол, обеспечивающий коммуникации в Internet. IP-адрес представляет собой цифровой адрес, состоящий из четырех чисел, разделенных точками. Каждый IP-адрес однозначно определяет компьютер в сети Internet. Для более легкого доступа к компьютеру обычно используют его доменное имя [http://www.webxpert.ru/slovar.html].
[ http://www.morepc.ru/dict/]

Тематики
- информационные технологии в целом
EN
- Internet Protocol
- IP
точка [место] идентификации
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики
- энергетика в целом
EN
- identification point
- IP
степень защиты
Способ защиты, обеспечиваемый оболочкой от доступа к опасным частям, попадания внешних твердых предметов и (или) воды и проверяемый стандартными методами испытаний.
[ ГОСТ 14254-96( МЭК 529-89)]

степень защиты, обеспечиваемая оболочкой (IP)
Числовые обозначения после кода IP, которые в соответствии с МЭК 60529 [12] характеризуют оболочку электрооборудования, обеспечивающую:
- защиту персонала от прикасания или доступа к находящимся под напряжением или движущимся частям (за исключением гладких вращающихся валов и т.п.), расположенным внутри оболочки;
- защиту электрооборудования от проникания в него твердых посторонних тел и,
- если указано в обозначении, защиту электрооборудования от вредного проникания воды.
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 60050-426-2006]

EN

degree of protection of enclosure
IP (abbreviation)
numerical classification according to IEC 60529 preceded by the symbol IP applied to the enclosure of electrical apparatus to provide:
– protection of persons against contact with, or approach to, live parts and against contact with moving parts (other than smooth rotating shafts and the like) inside the enclosure,
– protection of the electrical apparatus against ingress of solid foreign objects, and
– where indicated by the classification, protection of the electrical apparatus against harmful ingress of water
[IEV number 426-04-02 ]

FR

degré de protection procuré par une enveloppe
IP (abréviation)
classification numérique selon la CEI 60529, précédée du symbole IP, appliquée à une enveloppe de matériel électrique pour apporter:
– une protection des personnes contre tout contact ou proximité avec des parties actives et contre tout contact avec une pièce mobile (autre que les roulements en faible rotation) à l'intérieur d'une enveloppe
– une protection du matériel électrique contre la pénétration de corps solide étrangers, et
– selon l’indication donnée par la classification, une protection du matériel électrique contre la pénétration dangereuse de l’eau
[IEV number 426-04-02 ]

Элементы кода IP и их обозначения по ГОСТ 14254-96( МЭК 529-89)

Цифры кода IP

Значение для защиты оборудования от проникновения внешних твердых предметов

Значение для защиты людей от доступа к опасным частям

Первая характеристическая цифра

0

Нет защиты

Нет защиты

1

диаметром ≥ 50 мм

тыльной стороной руки

2

диаметром ≥ 12,5 мм

пальцем

3

диаметром ≥ 2,5 мм

инструментом

4

диаметром ≥ 1,0 мм

проволокой

5

пылезащищенное

проволокой

6

пыленепроницаемое

проволокой

От вредного воздействия в результате проникновения воды

Вторая характеристическая цифра

0

Нет защиты

-

1

Вертикальное каплепадение

2

Каплепадение (номинальный угол 15°)

3

Дождевание

4

Сплошное обрызгивание

5

Действие струи

6

Сильное действие струи

7

Временное непродолжительное погружение

8

Длительное погружение

Дополнительная буква (при необходимости)

-

От доступа к опасным частям

A

тыльной стороной руки

B

пальцем

C

инструментом

проволокой

Вспомогательная буква (при необходимости)

Вспомогательная информация относящаяся к:

-

H

высоковольтным аппаратам

M

состоянию движения во время испытаний защиты от воды

S

состоянию неподвижности во время испытаний защиты от воды

W

Требования в части стойкости оболочек и электрооборудования в целом к климатическим, механическим внешним воздействующим факторам (ВВФ) и специальным средам (кроме проникновения внешних твердых предметов и воды) установлены вне рамок настоящего стандарта.

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

The code IP indicates the degrees of protection provided by an enclosure against access to hazardous parts, ingress of solid foreign objects and ingress of water.
The degree of protection of an enclosure is identified, in compliance with the specifications of the Standard IEC 60529, by the code letters IP (International Protection) followed by two numerals and two additional letters.
The first characteristic numeral indicates the degree of protection against ingress of solid foreign objects and against contact of persons with hazardous live parts inside the enclosure.
The second characteristic numeral indicates the degree of protection against ingress of water with harmful effects.
[ABB]

Код IP обозначает степень защиты, обеспечиваемую оболочкой от попадания внутрь твердых посторонних предметов и воды.
Степень защиты оболочки обозначается в соответствии со стандартом МЭК 60529 буквенным обозначением IP (International Protection, т. е. Международная защита) после которого следуют две цифры, к которым в некоторых случаях добавляются еще две буквы.
Первая характеристическая цифра обозначает степень защиты от проникновения твердых посторонних предметов и от контакта людей с находящимися внутри оболочки опасными токоведущими частями.
Вторая характеристическая цифра обозначает степень защиты оболочки с точки зрения вредного воздействия, оказываемого проникновением воды.
[Перевод Интент]

The protection of enclosures against ingress of dirt or against the ingress of water is defined in IEC529 (BSEN60529:1991). Conversely, an enclosure which protects equipment against ingress of particles will also protect a person from potential hazards within that enclosure, and this degree of protection is also defined as a standard.

The degrees of protection are most commonly expressed as ‘IP’ followed by two numbers, e.g. IP65, where the numbers define the degree of protection. The first digit shows the extent to which the equipment is protected against particles, or to which persons are protected from enclosed hazards. The second digit indicates the extent of protection against water.

The wording in the table is not exactly as used in the standards document, but the dimensions are accurate

IP Degree of Protection according to EN/IEC 60529

Correlations between IP (IEC) and NEMA 250 standards

IP10 -> NEMA 1
IP11 -> NEMA 2
IP54 -> NEMA 3 R
IP52 -> NEMA 5-12-12 K
IP54 -> NEMA 3-3 S
IP56 -> NEMA 4-4 X
IP67 -> NEMA 6-6 P

[ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/ip-protection-degree-iec-60529-explained]

Тематики
- безопасность машин и труда в целом
- электробезопасность
- электротехника, основные понятия
Действия
- степень защиты
- степень защиты, обеспечиваемая оболочкой
- степень защиты, обеспечиваемая оболочкой (код IP)
EN
DE
- IP-Schutzgrad, m
- Schutzart des Gehäuses, f
FR
- degré de protection procuré par une enveloppe
- IP
3.1.12 Интернет протокол (Internet Protocol; IP): Межсетевой протокол пакетной передачи, работает с 32 битовыми адресами, обеспечивает адресацию и маршрутизацию пакетов в сети; работает без установления соединения, не обеспечивает сохранение порядка следования пакетов, не гарантирует доставку пакетов.

Источник: ГОСТ Р 53531-2009: Телевидение вещательное цифровое. Требования к защите информации от несанкционированного доступа в сетях кабельного и наземного телевизионного вещания. Основные параметры. Технические требования оригинал документа
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > Ip
14 to hit out at / hit out against

to hit out at / hit out against

transitive verb insep

1 (condemn verbally) condenar a, atacar a; (try to attack) atacar a

■ she hit out at him to protect herself ella lo atacó para protegerse

■ the Trade Unions hit out at what they consider unfair measures los sindicatos atacaron lo que ellos consideran medidas injustas

English-spanish dictionary > to hit out at / hit out against
15 bill of exchange

(B/E; b.e.; b/e)

банк., міжторг. переказнии вексель; вексель; тратта вид оборотного документа (negotiable instrument), який містить обов'язковий письмовий наказ векселедавця (drawer) платнику (drawee) про сплату третій особі певної суми грошей у визначені терміни; ♦ акцептант (acceptor), приймаючи вексель, стає боржником і несе відповідальність за сплату визначеної суми; до переказних векселів належить торговельний вексель (commercial bill), торговельна тратта (trade bill), чек (cheque) та ін.

═════════■═════════

acceptance bill of exchange акцептована тратта; claused bill of exchange тратта з додатковими умовами; clean bill of exchange недокументована тратта; commercial bill of exchange торговельна тратта • торговельний вексель • комерційний вексель; demand bill of exchange пред'явницька тратта; documented bill of exchange документована тратта; dollar bill of exchange вексель, виписаний в доларах; domiciled bill of exchange переказнии вексель із зазначеним місцем платежу; first bill of exchange перший екземпляр векселя • перший екземпляр тратти; foreign bill of exchange закордонна тратта • чужоземний вексель; paid bill of exchange оплачений вексель • оплачена тратта; pawned bill of exchange заставний вексель; protested bill of exchange опротестований вексель; sight bill of exchange пред'явницька тратта; usance bill of exchange зовнішньоторговельний вексель, оплачений у терміни, визначені торговельною практикою

═════════□═════════

guarantee of a bill of exchange аваль • поручительство за векселем • співпідпис; to accept a bill of exchange приймати/прийняти переказнии вексель • акцептувати тратту; to discount a bill of exchange обліковувати/облікувати переказнии вексель • дисконтувати переказнии вексель; to dishonour a bill of exchange відкидати/відкинути переказнии вексель; to draw a bill of exchange виписувати/виписати переказнии вексель • виставляти/виставити тратту; to endorse a bill of exchange розписуватися/розписатися на звороті переказного векселя • робити/зробити передавальний напис на переказному векселі; to give a bill of exchange подавати/подати переказнии вексель; to issue a bill of exchange виписувати/виписати переказнии вексель • виставляти/виставити тратту; to make out a bill of exchange виписувати/виписати переказнии вексель; to negotiate a bill of exchange пускати/пустити в обіг переказнии вексель • продавати/продати переказнии вексель • реалізувати переказнии вексель • пускати/пустити в обіг тратту; to prolong a bill of exchange продовжувати/продовжити переказнии вексель; to protect a bill of exchange оплачувати/оплатити переказнии вексель • оплачувати/оплатити тратту; to rediscount a bill of exchange переоб-ліковувати/переоблікувати переказнии вексель • передисконтовувати/передисконтувати переказнии вексель; to renew a bill of exchange продовжувати/продовжити переказнии вексель; to sign a bill of exchange підписувати/підписати переказнии вексель • підписувати/підписати тратту; to sign a bill of exchange per procuration підписувати/підписати тратту на підставі доручення; to take up a bill of exchange оплачувати/оплатити переказнии вексель • сплачувати/сплатити тратту

bill of exchange:: draft; bill of exchange ‡ negotiable instruments (390)

═════════◇═════════

вексель < нім. Wechsel — вексель, обмін, переміна, розмін, що споріднене з лат. vicēs — зміна, взаємність; через посередництво рос. і польс. (ЕСУМ 1: 345); зах. укр. варіанти вексель (вексля, мн. векслі) < польс. weksel (weksla, weksle) (ЕС-СУМ 1: 205)

▹▹ bank draft

* * *

переказний вексель; тратта

The English-Ukrainian Dictionary > bill of exchange
16 shelter

1. noun
1) (shield) Schutz, der ( against vor + Dat., gegen)

bomb or air-raid shelter — Luftschutzraum, der

get under shelter — sich unterstellen

2) no pl. (place of safety) Zuflucht, die

we needed food and shelter — wir brauchten etwas zu essen und eine Unterkunft

look for shelter for the night — eine Unterkunft für die Nacht suchen

offer or give somebody shelter, provide shelter for somebody — jemandem Zuflucht gewähren od. bieten

take shelter [from a storm] — [vor einem Sturm] Schutz suchen

seek/reach shelter — Schutz od. Zuflucht suchen/finden
2. transitive verb
schützen ( from vor + Dat.); Unterschlupf gewähren (+ Dat.) [Flüchtling]

shelter somebody from blame/harm — jemanden decken/gegen alle Gefahren schützen
3. intransitive verb
Schutz od. Zuflucht suchen ( from vor + Dat.)

this is a good place to shelter — hier ist man gut geschützt

* * *
['ʃeltə] 1. noun
1) (protection against wind, rain, enemies etc: We gave the old man shelter for the night.) das Obdach

2) (a building etc designed to give such protection: a bus-shelter.) die Schutzhütte
2. verb
1) (to be in, or go into, a place of shelter: He sheltered from the storm.) Schutz suchen

2) (to give protection: That line of trees shelters my garden.) schützen

•

- academic.ru/91490/sheltered">sheltered

* * *

shel·ter

[ˈʃəltəʳ, AM -ɚ]

I. n

1. no pl Schutz m

to find \shelter Schutz finden

we found \shelter in an abandoned house in einem verlassenen Haus fanden wir Schutz

to give [or provide] \shelter from sth vor etw dat Schutz bieten

to take \shelter Schutz suchen

2. (structure) Unterstand m; (sth to sit in) Häuschen nt

bus \shelter Häuschen nt an der Bushaltestelle; (hut) Schutzhütte f; MIL Unterstand m

air raid \shelter Luftschutzraum m; (building for the needy) Heim nt, Unterkunft f

a \shelter for the homeless ein Obdachlosenheim nt

a \shelter for battered wives ein Frauenhaus nt

II. vi Schutz suchen

to \shelter under the eaves sich akk unter einen Dachvorsprung stellen

to \shelter under a tree sich akk unter einen Baum flüchten

to \shelter under an umbrella sich akk unter einem Schirm verstecken

▪ to \shelter from sth/sb vor etw/jdm Schutz suchen

III. vt

1. (protect)

▪ to \shelter sth/sb [from sth] etw/jdn [vor etw dat] schützen

2. AM (from tax)

to \shelter income from tax Einkommen steuerlich nicht abzugsfähig machen

* * *
['ʃeltə(r)]
1. n
(= protection) Schutz m; (= place) Unterstand m; (= air-raid shelter) (Luftschutz)keller or -bunker m; (= bus shelter) Wartehäuschen nt; (= mountain shelter) (Berg- or Schutz)hütte f; (for the night) Obdach nt (liter), Unterkunft f
a shelter for homeless people — ein Obdachlosenheim or -asyl nt

under the shelter of the rock —

when the ship reached shelter — als das Schiff eine sichere or schützende Stelle erreichte

to take shelter — sich in Sicherheit bringen; (from rain, hail etc) sich unterstellen

to seek shelter — Schutz suchen

to run for shelter — Zuflucht suchen

to give sb shelter — jdn beherbergen

to provide shelter for sb — jdm Schutz bieten

the peasants offered the guerrillas shelter — die Bauern boten den Partisanen Zuflucht

2. vt
schützen (from vor +dat); criminal verstecken
to shelter sb from blame — jdn gegen Vorwürfe in Schutz nehmen

to shelter sb from harm — jdn vor Schaden bewahren

the police think he's sheltering someone — die Polizei glaubt, dass er jemanden deckt

parents sheltering their children from harsh reality — Eltern, die ihre Kinder vor der rauen Wirklichkeit behüten

3. vi

there was nowhere to shelter — man konnte nirgends Schutz finden; (from rain etc) man konnte sich nirgends unterstellen

a good place to shelter — eine Stelle, wo man gut geschützt ist

we sheltered in a shop doorway — wir stellten uns in einem Ladeneingang unter

we sheltered behind the rocks — wir stellten uns zum Schutz hinter die Felsen

to shelter behind a friend/one's reputation (fig) — sich hinter einem Freund/seinem Ansehen verstecken

* * *

shelter [ˈʃeltə(r)]

A s

1. Schutzhütte f, -raum m, -dach n

2. Zufluchtsort m

3. Obdach n, Herberge f

4. Schutz m, Zuflucht f:

take ( oder seek) shelter → B 4;

seek shelter fig sich verstecken ( behind a fact hinter einer Tatsache)

5. MIL

a) Bunker m, Unterstand m

b) (Luft-) Schutzraum m

c) Deckung f ( from vor dat)

6. → bus shelter

B v/t

1. (be)schützen, beschirmen ( beide:

from vor dat):

a sheltered life ein behütetes Leben;

sheltered trade WIRTSCH Br (durch Zölle) geschützter Handelszweig;

sheltered workshop beschützende Werkstätte

2. schützen, bedecken, überdachen

3. jemandem Schutz oder Zuflucht gewähren:

shelter o.s. sich verstecken ( behind hinter jemandem od etwas)

4. jemanden beherbergen

C v/i

1. Zuflucht oder Schutz oder Obdach suchen

2. sich unterstellen

* * *
1. noun
1) (shield) Schutz, der ( against vor + Dat., gegen)

bomb or air-raid shelter — Luftschutzraum, der

get under shelter — sich unterstellen

2) no pl. (place of safety) Zuflucht, die

we needed food and shelter — wir brauchten etwas zu essen und eine Unterkunft

look for shelter for the night — eine Unterkunft für die Nacht suchen

offer or give somebody shelter, provide shelter for somebody — jemandem Zuflucht gewähren od. bieten

take shelter [from a storm] — [vor einem Sturm] Schutz suchen

seek/reach shelter — Schutz od. Zuflucht suchen/finden
2. transitive verb
schützen ( from vor + Dat.); Unterschlupf gewähren (+ Dat.) [Flüchtling]

shelter somebody from blame/harm — jemanden decken/gegen alle Gefahren schützen
3. intransitive verb
Schutz od. Zuflucht suchen ( from vor + Dat.)

this is a good place to shelter — hier ist man gut geschützt

* * *

n.

Herberge -n f.

Obdach -¨er n.

Schuppen - m.

Schutz m.

Schutzdach n.

Unterstand m. v.

beschirmen v.

beschützen v.

English-german dictionary > shelter
17 speculation

noun

Spekulation, die ( over über + Akk.)

* * *

noun

1) (a guess: Your speculations were all quite close to the truth.) die Vermutung

2) (the act of speculating: There was great speculation as to what was happening.) die Spekulation

* * *

specu·la·tion

[ˌspekjəˈleɪʃ^ən]

n

1. (guess) Spekulation f, Vermutung f ( about über + akk)

there have been \speculations [that] he's looking for a new job man vermutet, dass er eine neue Arbeit sucht

to be pure \speculation reine Vermutung sein

to fuel [or prompt] \speculation die Spekulationen anheizen

2. (trade) Spekulation f

stock-market \speculation Börsenspekulation f

to protect sth from \speculation etw vor Spekulation schützen

* * *
["spekjU'leISən]
n
(all senses) Spekulation f (on über +acc); (= guesswork also) Vermutung f
it is the subject of much speculation — darüber sind viele Spekulationen or Vermutungen angestellt worden

it's pure speculation — das ist reine Vermutung

* * *

speculation s

1. Spekulieren n

2. Spekulation f:

mere ( oder pure) speculation reine Spekulation;

there is speculation that … es gibt Spekulationen, dass …

3. PHIL Spekulation f (hypothetischer, über die erfahrbare Wirklichkeit hinausgehender Gedankengang)

4. WIRTSCH Spekulation f

spec. abk

1. special (specially) spez., bes

2. speculation

* * *

noun

Spekulation, die ( over über + Akk.)

* * *

n.

Mutmaßung f.

Rätselraten n.

Spekulation f.

English-german dictionary > speculation
18 speculation

specu·la·tion [ˌspekjəʼleɪʃ^ən] n

1) ( guess) Spekulation f, Vermutung f ( about über +akk);

there have been \speculations [that] he's looking for a new job man vermutet, dass er eine neue Arbeit sucht;

to be pure \speculation reine Vermutung sein;

to fuel [or prompt] \speculation die Spekulationen anheizen

2) ( trade) Spekulation f;

stock-market \speculation Börsenspekulation f;

to protect sth from \speculation etw vor Spekulation schützen

English-German students dictionary > speculation
19 interfere

1. I
abs

1) it wasn't my business to interfere мне незачем /нечего/ было вмешиваться; I shall take care to interfere я постараюсь вмешаться в это /сказать свое слово/; leave me alone! don't interfere! оставь меня в покое!, не мешай!; who asked you to interfere! кто просил тебя вмешиваться?

2) I shall go tomorrow if nothing interferes [я] поеду завтра, если ничто не помешает; the two plans interfere один план идет вразрез с другим, эти два плана несовместимы
2. II
interfere in some manner interfere arrogantly (energetically, unreasonably, consciously, jealously, materially, etc.) нагло и т. д. вмешиваться
3. XI
be interfered with I don't like to be interfered with не люблю, когда мне мешают
4. XIII
interfere to do smth. interfere to protect the children (to stop the riot, to salvage what remained, etc.) вмешаться, чтобы защитить детей и т. д.
5. XVI
1) interfere with smth., smb. interfere with smb.'s plans (with duty, with the course of justice, with our industrial development, with the progress of the work, with our trade, etc.) мешать /препятствовать/ осуществлению чьих-л. планов и т. д., interfere with the operation of a rule затруднять применение правила; I shall never finish my work if you interfere with me like this я никогда не кончу эту работу, если ты будешь меня все время отрывать, pleasure must not be allowed to interfere with business развлечения не должны быть помехой делу; interfere делу время, потехе час; interfere with smb.'s interests (with historical tradition, etc.) вступать в противоречие с чьими-л. интересами и т. д., interfere with health вредить здоровью; it cannot possibly interfere with the business это никоим образом не может повредить делу

2) interfere with smb., smth. interfere with the boys (with the dispute of others, with private business, etc.) вмешиваться в дела мальчиков и т. д.; interfere with the clock (with this machine, etc.) трогать часы и т. д., баловаться с часами и т. д.; interfere in smth. interfere in family quarrels (in another's life, in the matter, in smb.'s business, in the work, etc.) вмешиваться в семейные ссоры и т. д.; that woman is always interfering in other people's affairs эта женщина всегда сует нос в чужие дела; interfere between smb. and smb. interfere between husband and wife вставать между мужем и женой
6. XVII
interfere with smb.'s doing smth. interfere with my going there (with his reading, with her singing, etc.) помешать мне пойти туда и т. д.
7. XXV
interfere when... do not interfere when bullies fight не лезь, когда дерутся хулиганы
8. XXVII1
interfere in what... I refuse to interfere in what doesn't concern me я не желаю вмешиваться в то, что меня не касается

English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > interfere
20 good

1. n

1) добро, благо

2) польза

3) pl товар, товары; изделия

4) pl груз; багаж

- abandoned goods
- acceptable goods
- advertised goods
- afloat goods
- agricultural goods
- assorted goods
- auction goods
- back-to-school goods
- bale goods
- baled goods
- barter goods
- basic goods
- bonded goods
- branded goods
- bulk goods
- bulky goods
- bundle goods
- bundled goods
- canned goods
- capital goods
- cased goods
- choice goods
- commercial goods
- competitive goods
- competitively priced goods
- complementary goods
- consignment goods
- consumable goods
- consumer goods
- consumption goods
- contraband goods
- contract goods
- convenience goods
- cotton goods
- covered goods
- crated goods
- critical goods
- cultural and household goods
- custom made goods
- cut-price goods
- damaged goods
- damaging goods
- dangerous goods
- defective goods
- defence goods
- delayed goods
- deliverable goods
- delivered goods
- diplomatic goods
- dispatched goods
- distressed goods
- domestic goods
- dry goods
- durable goods
- duty-free goods
- easy-to-sell goods
- economic good
- eligible goods
- essential goods
- ethical goods
- exchange goods
- exchangeable goods
- exhibition goods
- explosive goods
- export goods
- exported goods
- express goods
- factored goods
- fair goods
- fancy goods
- farm goods
- fashion goods
- fast-moving goods
- fast-selling goods
- faulty goods
- final goods
- finished goods
- first class goods
- first order goods
- fixed price goods
- foreign goods
- foreign-made goods
- fragile goods
- free goods
- frozen goods
- gift goods
- groupage goods
- half-finished goods
- hard goods
- hazardous goods
- heavy goods
- heavyweight goods
- high-grade goods
- high-priced goods
- high-quality goods
- high-technology goods
- home-made goods
- household goods
- import goods
- imported goods
- impulse goods
- inbound goods
- incoming goods
- indestructible goods
- industrial goods
- industrialized goods
- inferior goods
- inflammable goods
- insured goods
- intermediate goods
- internationally tradeable goods
- investment goods
- inward goods
- labour-intensive goods
- large-scale goods
- late goods
- light goods
- liquid goods
- long-lived goods
- loose goods
- low-grade goods
- low-price goods
- low value added primary goods
- luxury goods
- Manchester goods
- manufactured goods
- marked goods
- marked-down goods
- marketable goods
- mass production goods
- measurement goods
- merchant goods
- miscellaneous goods
- missing goods
- new goods
- nondurable goods
- noncompetitive goods
- nonconforming goods
- nonfood goods
- nonessential goods
- nonhazardous goods
- nonsensitive goods
- nontraditional good
- novelty goods
- off-guage goods
- official goods
- ordered goods
- outbound goods
- outgoing goods
- out of time goods
- output goods
- outward goods
- over-dimensioned goods
- over-priced goods
- oversized goods
- packaged goods
- packed goods
- packed-up goods
- packeted goods
- palleted goods
- palletised goods
- parcel goods
- parity goods
- past due goods
- patent goods
- perishable goods
- perishing goods
- piece goods
- pledged goods
- point-of-purchase goods
- popular goods
- prepackaged goods
- prepacked goods
- prestige goods
- price-maintained goods
- primary goods
- private goods
- processed goods
- producer durable goods
- producer's goods
- production goods
- professional goods
- prohibited goods
- protected goods
- proprietary goods
- public good
- public goods
- quality goods
- quota goods
- realized goods
- received goods
- received for shipment goods
- reexport goods
- reexported goods
- refrigerated goods
- rejected goods
- remote goods
- repaired goods
- replaced goods
- reproducible goods
- retail goods
- return goods
- sale goods
- salvaged goods
- saved goods
- scarce goods
- seasonal goods
- secondhand goods
- secondrate good
- selected goods
- semidurable goods
- semifinished goods
- semimanufactured goods
- serially produced goods
- shipped goods
- shopping goods
- short-delivered goods
- short-shipped goods
- similar goods
- slow-moving goods
- soft goods
- sold goods
- sophisticated goods
- specialty goods
- spoiled goods
- spot goods
- spring goods
- stacked goods
- standardized goods
- staple goods
- storage goods
- store goods
- stranded goods
- strategic goods
- substandard goods
- substitutional goods
- superior goods
- surplus goods
- technical consumer goods
- textile goods
- top-quality goods
- tradeable goods
- trademarked goods
- traditional export goods
- transit goods
- transportable goods
- truck-packaged goods
- unaccepted goods
- unaddressed goods
- unbonded goods
- unclaimed goods
- uncovered goods
- undamaged goods
- undeclared goods
- undelivered goods
- unfinished goods
- uninsured goods
- unmarketable goods
- unmerchantable goods
- unordered goods
- unpacked goods
- unprotected goods
- unsaleable goods
- unshipped goods
- unsold goods
- unwrapped goods
- utility goods
- varied goods
- wage goods
- warehouse goods
- weight goods
- wet goods
- goods for bulk shipment
- goods for immediate delivery
- goods from stock
- goods in bales
- goods in bond
- goods in bulk
- goods in grain form
- goods in powder form
- goods in process
- goods in short supply
- goods in stock
- goods in store
- goods in transit
- goods of the best brands
- goods of damaging nature
- goods of dangerous character
- goods of equal value
- goods of equal worth
- goods of first priority
- goods of foreign make
- goods of foreign origin
- goods of high quality
- goods of inferior quality
- goods of inflammable nature
- goods of low quality
- goods of poor quality
- goods of prime necessity
- goods of sound quality
- goods of superior quality
- goods of top quality
- goods on consignment
- goods on hand
- goods out of season
- goods under arrest
- goods under customs bond
- goods under customs seal
- goods intended for shipment
- goods light in weight
- goods subject to deterioration
- accept goods
- accept goods for carriage
- advertise goods
- buy goods
- carry goods
- charge goods in an invoice
- claim goods
- clear goods
- collect goods
- consign goods
- convey goods
- declare goods
- declare goods waste
- delay goods
- deliver goods
- deliver goods at the disposal of smb
- deliver goods on sale or return
- demonstrate goods
- detain goods
- discharge goods
- dispatch goods
- dispose of goods
- distribute goods
- effect transhipment of goods
- enter goods for customs clearing
- enter goods for home consumption
- examine goods
- exchange goods
- exhibit goods
- export goods
- feature goods
- forward goods
- furnish with goods
- grade goods
- handle goods
- hand over goods
- have goods on trial
- hold goods in store
- import goods
- inspect goods
- insure goods
- introduce goods
- investigate goods
- invoice goods
- keep goods
- keep goods in stock
- land goods
- launch goods
- load goods
- make goods
- make goods ready for shipment
- make goods upon order
- make up goods
- manufacture goods
- mark goods
- mortgage goods
- move goods to the market
- need goods
- obtain goods
- obtain goods free of tax
- obtain possession of goods
- offer goods
- off-load goods
- order goods
- pack goods
- palletise goods
- pay for goods
- pick up goods
- place goods at the disposal of smb
- place goods on the market
- pledge goods with a bank
- present goods
- press goods on smb
- price goods
- produce goods
- protect goods
- provide goods
- purchase goods
- push goods
- put goods on the market
- readdress goods
- recall goods
- receive goods
- reconsign goods
- reject goods
- redeem pledged goods
- reexport goods
- release goods
- reload goods
- remove goods
- render goods marketable
- require goods
- resell goods
- retain goods
- return goods
- safeguard goods
- salvage goods
- search for goods
- secure goods
- sell goods
- sell goods retail
- sell goods wholesale
- sell out goods
- send goods on consignment
- ship goods
- show goods to advantage
- stack goods
- stock goods
- store goods
- submit goods to a careful examination
- supply goods
- survey goods
- tag goods
- take goods
- take goods on commission
- take goods on sale
- take goods out of pledge
- take stock of goods
- tally goods
- test goods
- throw goods on the market
- trace goods
- trade in goods
- transfer goods
- transfer goods to a warehouse
- tranship goods
- transport goods
- turn out goods
- turn goods over to smb
- unload goods
- value goods
- warehouse goods
- withdraw goods from the market
- withdraw goods from a warehouse
2. adj

1) хороший, годный

2) доброкачественный

3) надежный; кредитоспособный

4) добросовестный

- good faith
- good this month
- good this week
- good through
- good till cancelled

English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > good

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protect trade

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